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Calligraphy

Iranian calligraphy is a part of Islamic calligraphy in Iran and the field of Iranian civilization

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Iranian calligraphy is a branch of Islamic calligraphy and a significant aspect of Iranian civilization, influencing regions such as Central Asia, Afghanistan, and the Indian subcontinent. While Iranians played a central role in transforming ordinary writing into artistic calligraphy, they gradually developed their own distinct styles and techniques. Although these innovative methods have become popular in other Islamic countries, they remain closely associated with Iran.
Qazvin has been recognized as the "Capital of Calligraphy of Iran" by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance and the High Council of Culture, due to the city’s historical role in training many great calligraphers. Apart from the Permanent Museum of Calligraphy in the Chehelsotoun Palace, Qazvin hosts major annual calligraphy events, including the Iranian Calligraphy Biennial, the Quranic Calligraphy Festival, and the Ghadir Calligraphy Festival.
The Iranian Calligraphers Association was initially established in 1329 SH as free calligraphy classes. It officially received its founding letter on September 10, 1967, and gradually expanded, particularly after the 1978 Islamic Revolution, gaining popularity among youth and various social groups. Today, the Association has branches in most cities of Iran and some other countries, training many students and promoting the art of calligraphy worldwide.
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Persian Calligraphy

Persian calligraphy or Iranian calligraphy is one of the most revered arts of Iran, which has gradually evolved and many calligraphers have contributed to different genres of this art. Nastaliq is an outstanding genre of Persian calligraphy that has come to be known as the most beautiful human calligraphy.

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Following the advent of Islam in Iran, calligraphy was one of the Iranian arts that expanded and developed dramatically and was used in writing the Holy Qur’an and books. Muslim Iranians believed that, being the words of God Almighty, the Holy Qur’an, should be written in the best possible handwriting and, therefore, the main use of calligraphy was in writing this holy book. Despite the fact that different genres of calligraphy have appeared in Islamic lands, the role of Iranians in the development of this art has been much more outstanding.

Using calligraphy in decorating architectural works was also one of the factors that both helped develop this art and caused the formation of astounding architectural works.

History of Persian Calligraphy

According to the legends and the narrations included in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, the demons taught the art of calligraphy to Tahmuras (the mythological king of Iran) in exchange for being freed from his prison.

However, according to available historical evidence, Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first Shiite imam (7th century AD) had, during his rule in Kufa, invented a special style of writing, which was called “Kufic”. This style of writing gradually became popular throughout the Islamic territories and inspired by the Kufic script, the art of calligraphy began in the following years.

Apart from being used for writing books and decorating architectural works, calligraphy was also used for decorating pottery works, metal works, and silk and velvet clothes. It, however, seems that the use of calligraphy on silver and gold coins and agate seals was among the first uses of this art in cases other than writing books.

About 400 years after Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib (AS), the Samanids (819 to 1004 AD) popularized a new style of Kufic calligraphy. This style of calligraphy was inspired by the decorations used in architecture. Thus, it can be claimed that one factor for the popularization of calligraphic works was the inscriptions that were used in architectural monuments, which were written in Kufic, Thulth, and Naskh scripts.

The Evolution of Persian Calligraphy

Many calligraphy masters have contributed to the evolution of this art. Around the 16th century AD, a calligraphy master in Shiraz created six different styles of Kufic script. About 100 years later, certain rules and regulations for teaching and writing different alphabetic letters were outlined and a script called “Reyhan” was developed by Iranian calligraphers. Calligraphy masters trained many students from different parts of Islamic land. One of these people decorated a large number of buildings in Iraq using the art of Persian calligraphy and wrote 33 copies of the Holy Qur’an during the 13th and 14th centuries AD. A number of these old versions can be found in the museums of Iran and Europe.

Some of the great Iranian calligraphy masters include Mir Emad Hassani Qazvini (1554 to 1615 AD) - who was so skilled in calligraphy that today good calligraphy is called “Mir calligraphy” - and Gholamhossein Amirkhani (born in 1940 AD) who is considered the greatest contemporary master of Persian calligraphy.

Evolution of Persian Calligraphy During the Reign of Different Governments

During the reign of the Ilkhanate (1256 to 1356 AD), even though it was of Mongol origin, calligraphy became very popular. One of the most beautiful works left from this period is a 65 x 54 cm copy of the Holy Qur’an whose letters are written with gold. The Timurid (1370 to 1506 AD), too, strongly supported the art of calligraphy, and a number of non-religious books such as the famous Baysunghur Shahnameh were scripted during this period.

A new style of calligraphy, which became known as “Ta’liq” (meaning suspended) was created during the Timurid era and thereafter the Nastaliq script was created by combining two styles of “Naskh” and “Ta’liq”; a script, which according to some experts is the most beautiful style of calligraphy. Despite the fact that since the creation of Nastaliq, many artists tried to remove it by introducing new writing styles, this script remained quite popular and it is now considered the most popular and beautiful Persian script among Iranian calligraphers.

The interest of the Safavids (1501 to 1736 AD) in this art strengthened its growing trend and caused the emergence of several renowned calligraphy masters like Mir Emad Qazvini - one of the most famous masters of Nastaliq style of calligraphy, who scripted several works, including Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh and Jami’s poems.

Persian Calligraphy in Other Countries

Apart from Iran, the Nastaliq script found its way to Türkiye and India and many people got interested in it. A style of Nastaliq calligraphy called “Shekasteh” (lit. broken) became popular in India.

Stages of Innovation in Persian Calligraphy

In the 16th century AD, a new art was inspired by calligraphy, which became known as “Qatai” or “Kaghazabori”. The product of this work of art was a combination of calligraphy, gold leaf, border decoration, etc. Later on, miniature, floral, and arabesque designs were also used to decorate Nashq and Nastaliq scripts and became known as the “Golzar” style.

Another style that developed with the help of calligraphy was “Masvadeh” (meaning draft). This style was born from the creative combination of different designs and styles. The use of calligraphy on coins, seals, clothes, and paintings was one of the steps that helped the progress of calligraphy.

What has strengthened the art of Persian calligraphy is the rich Iranian literature and in spite of the expansion of the printing industry calligraphy continues to be popular art in Iran.

The art of Persian calligraphy was inscribed on the list of UNESCO as an intangible world heritage in the year 2022.

 

 

Persian calligraphy or Iranian calligraphy is one of the most revered arts of Iran, which has gradually evolved and many calligraphers have contributed to different genres of this art. Nastaliq is an outstanding genre of Persian calligraphy that has come to be known as the most beautiful human calligraphy.

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Calligraphy; the Gem of Islamic-Iranian Art

Calligraphy is the art of beautifying letters and words based on established principles and rules. In general terms, this art means writing beautifully and having elegant handwriting. In other words, calligraphy involves attention to the visual aspect and adherence to aesthetic principles and rules when writing letters and words.

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Calligraphy: The Gem of Islamic Iranian Art
The emergence of writing, which serves as a means of conveying messages and concepts, likely dates back to near the very origins of human history. Calligraphy, which arose from this remarkable and influential human development, represents human imagination in shaping letters and words. Calligraphy is the art of beautifully crafting letters and words according to specific principles and rules. In general terms, it means writing elegantly and possessing a pleasing handwriting. In other words, calligraphy involves attention to the visual aspect and adherence to aesthetic principles and rules when forming letters and words. According to some definitions, this art requires familiarity with a writing script, understanding the correct shapes of letters, possessing specific skills, and mastering the rules of writing.

 

Calligraphy in Nastaliq Script, by Gholamhossein Amirkhani

 

History of Islamic-Iranian Calligraphy
The glorious history of Islamic-Iranian calligraphy, according to an accepted and coherent classification, is divided into six distinct periods, which we will review below:
 
a) First Period
Islamic calligraphy began with the Kufic script and its dissemination across lands under Muslim rule. The Kufic script is challenging to read due to the absence of diacritical marks (vowel signs). The first person to add dots and marks to the Kufic script was Abu al-Aswad al-Du’ali. Later, toward the end of the Umayyad Caliphate, Khalil ibn Ahmad refined al-Du’ali’s work, bringing the script closer to its modern form.

 

A Qur’an manuscript in Kufic script, attributed to Imam Hasan al-Mujtaba (peace be upon him), preserved in the treasury of the National Library and Museum of Malek.

b) Second Period
During this period, which spans from the second half of the first century AH to the early third century AH, a variety of pens were initially invented and later categorized and selected. The classification of scripts toward the end of this period was based on the thickness and fineness of the lines and their specific applications.
c) Third Period
During this period, Ibn Muqla al-Bizawi Shirazi and his brother Abu Abdullah Hasan ibn Ali took significant steps in the development of calligraphy. Their major contributions included Organizing and standardizing the various scripts to prevent disorder in writing, selecting and regulating fourteen types of pens, geometrically defining the proportions of letters and comparing them, perfecting the Naskh, Thuluth, and Ruqʿah scripts, refining the Muhaqqaq script, and establishing the twelve foundational rules of calligraphy.
d) Fourth Period
In this period, Ali ibn Hilal, known as Ibn al-Bawwab, evaluated and perfected the pens selected by Ibn Muqla according to the dot-based system. He carried out this work based on Ibn Muqla’s twelve foundational rules, while also applying his own personal refinements.

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A page from the Qur’an in Naskh script, written with Ibn al-Bawwab’s pen.

 

e) Fifth Period
During this period, Yaqut al-Musta’simi reviewed the scripts developed and systematized by Ibn Muqla and Ibn al-Bawwab according to their standards of geometry and dot proportions. He selected and refined six scripts—Naskh, Thuluth, Muhaqqaq, Reyhan, Tawqiʿ, and Ruqʿah. Due to their widespread use and prominence during Yaqut’s time, these scripts became known as the “Principled Scripts”.
f) Sixth Period
This period, which began in the 7th century AH and continues to the present, marks the divergence of Iranian scripts from the original Arabic (Islamic) scripts. This divergence initially manifested in the Taʿlīq script, which, after its emergence in the 7th century AH, flourished and developed in Iran for nearly three centuries. About a century after Taʿlīq appeared, the Nastaliq script gradually emerged, and ultimately, Mir Ali Tabrizi in the 9th century AH formalized it as an independent and systematic script. The next step in the Iranian calligraphy movement was the development of the Shekasteh Nastaliq (broken Nastaliq) script, which some attribute to Morteza Gholi Khan Shamlu and others to Mohammad Shafiʿ Heravi, known as Shafiʿa.
Types of Calligraphy
Islamic-Iranian calligraphy, in its evolutionary process, has taken on various forms, most of which have developed from the transformation of one or more early scripts. Among these, the Kufic script and its variants, the six canonical scripts (Aqlam-e Sitta: Naskh, Thuluth, Muhaqqaq, Reyhan, Tawqiʿ, and Ruqʿah), and some decorative or ornamental scripts such as Tughra, Musanna, Mo‘amma, Musalsal, and Malun are considered the most significant types in this calligraphic tradition. In Islamic-Iranian calligraphy, there are also various formats for presenting the script, which we will describe in the following sections:
a) Kufic
The Kufic script is the oldest form of Islamic calligraphy, characterized primarily by flat, straight, and angular letters (without curves or loops). Its various styles are often accompanied by elongated horizontal strokes. The origins of this script, without dots or diacritical marks, date back to pre-Islamic times. With the advent of Islam and the transcription of the Qur’an, Kufic gradually became widespread and was standardized with dots and reading marks. As Kufic spread to other territories under Islamic rule—especially Iran and Central Asia—it underwent changes and developed different styles, including Simple Kufic, Decorative Kufic, and Architectural Kufic.
b) Naskh
The Naskh script is one of the oldest Islamic-Iranian scripts, distinguished by its meticulous focus on proportion, surpassing that of other scripts, which accounts for its beauty and enduring use in writing. This ancient script, which also serves as the basis for modern Iranian typesetting, has been used from as early as the 5th century AH to the present for copying and reproducing texts such as the Qur’an.

 

Calligraphy in Naskh Script
By Mohammad Shafiʿ Tabrizi

 

c) Thuluth
The Thuluth script is another important Islamic-Iranian calligraphic style, distinguished primarily by its elongated alifs and open, shallow curves. This script features curved strokes, and the repetition of long vertical letter strokes creates a rhythmic visual effect for the viewer. Thuluth is most commonly used in decorative inscriptions, on various religious and non-religious buildings, and in ornamental architectural contexts.

 

Calligraphy in Thuluth Script
By Ahmad Abdulrazaei

d) Muhaqqaq
The Muhaqqaq script, less commonly used by calligraphers compared to Naskh and Thuluth, is known for its uniform, well-proportioned, and robust letters. This script is written with regular spacing and without overlapping letters, and it bears a strong resemblance to Thuluth.

 

Qur’an Calligraphy in Muhaqqaq Script
By Baysonqor Mirza

 

e) Rayḥān
The Rayḥān script possesses all the characteristics of the Muhaqqaq script, but in a smaller and more delicate form, essentially derived from it. Due to the fineness and compactness of its letters, this script is likened to basil leaves and flowers. Rayḥān was created and used to facilitate writing and for abbreviated scripts.

 

Calligraphy in Rayḥān Script By Majd al-Din Nasiri Amini

f) Tawqīʿ
The Tawqīʿ script, also known as the Signature Script, is derived from the Thuluth script. Initially, it was primarily used in governmental and religious documents. This script was most commonly employed for writing names, titles, and official seals of rulers.

 

Calligraphy in Tawqīʿ Script By Abdullah Amāsi

Calligraphy in Ruqʿah Script
Ruqʿah script was initially known primarily for single-page writings (raqʿah). In this style, the letters are thinner and the curves more rounded compared to Tawqīʿ script. Ruqʿah is mainly used for purposes such as fast writing and concise note-taking.

 

Calligraphy in Ruqʿah Script, by Naser Tavousi

H) Taʿlīq
The Taʿlīq script is the first complete Iranian script derived from Islamic calligraphy. This type of script was influenced by pre-Islamic Iranian scripts (Pahlavi and Avestan) and emerged from the combination and development of the Taqwīʿ (Tawqīʿ) and Ruqʿah scripts. Taʿlīq is an intertwined and connected script in which letters and words are sometimes written large and sometimes small. Among its formal and technical features are circular compositions, rounded letters, word continuity, rapid writing, and the ability to create diverse compositions. In the past, Taʿlīq was primarily used as a cursive script for writing letters and official decrees; hence, it is also referred to as the Tarsal script (correspondence). The importance of Taʿlīq lies primarily in its role as a foundation for the emergence of two other famous Iranian scripts: Nastaʿlīq and Shekasteh-Nastaʿlīq.

 

 

Calligraphy in Taʿlīq Script
The first line is written by Hāshem Mohammad Khaṭāṭ, and the second line by Sayyid Ebrāhīm.

 

Nastaʿlīq
Nastaʿlīq is considered the second distinct Iranian script after Islam, created about a century after the development of Taʿlīq (in the latter half of the 8th century AH). This beloved and widely used script among Iranian calligraphers emerged from a comparison and combination of Taʿlīq and Naskh, but to achieve a sense of order and balance, it distances itself from both Naskh and Taʿlīq. In Nastaʿlīq, often called the “bride of scripts,” beauty, proportion, harmony, and stability reach their highest degree. In this script, the number of circular shapes is very high, straight and direct strokes are minimal, and the structure of the letters is primarily based on curves. Fundamentally, Nastaʿlīq lacks diacritical marks (such as short vowels) and maintains perfect proportion for writing specific Persian letters like «پ», «چ», «ژ», and «گ».

 

Calligraphy in Nastaʿlīq script, by Abbas Akhavan

Y) Shekasteh-Nastaʿlīq
Shekasteh-Nastaʿlīq is the third distinctive Iranian script developed after Islam. It emerged in the 11th century AH from the combination of Taʿlīq and Nastaʿlīq scripts. This script was created to achieve greater speed and ease in writing by loosening the curves and smoothing the serrations and connections of letters found in Nastaʿlīq. In Shekasteh-Nastaʿlīq, due to the abundant twists in the words, composition is of great importance. In the past, calligraphers often used a fine pen, and occasionally a broader pen, for composing this script. Today, Shekasteh calligraphers combine different types of pens on a single page.

 

Calligraphy in Shekasteh-Nastaʿlīq Script, by Yadollah Kaboli

 

Calligraphic Art (Naghsh-e-Khat)
A method in modern painting that uses line and calligraphy in an abstract manner. In this style, the line and its compositional arrangements (the rhythm and movement of letters) determine the final shape or design. The term is attributed to the French poet Guillaume Apollinaire, who used it to describe his visual poems. The calligraphic art movement emerged in the 1960s in the West and subsequently spread to other countries, including Iran, Morocco, Egypt, and Iraq. In Iran, this movement began in the 1960s (1340s SH) under the influence of Western modern painting, transforming the line from its conventional legibility into purely visual symbols, emphasizing its local and national identity.

 

Calligraphic Painting by Mohammad Ehsai

 

Khat-Naghashi (Calligraphic Painting / Calligraphy-Art)
In terminology, khat-naghashi refers to naturalistic designs in which calligraphy plays the most important role in their formation. In this international and decorative form, words and phrases directly create a shape or fill a pre-drawn form. Khat-naghashi, or arranging writing into the shapes of objects, geometric patterns, and human, animal, or plant figures, is considered one of the oldest forms of the tendency of script toward painting. This inclination has its roots in ancient ideogrammatic scripts. Its history can be traced in Western calligraphy: works of ancient Greek poets (before Christ), Arabic calligraphy: integration of script with geometric designs, animals, and architectural motifs in the early Islamic centuries, East Asian calligraphy (China, Japan, Korea): depicting human faces and naturalistic representations in antiquity, Iranian calligraphy: scattered experiences combining calligraphy with other arts, such as engraving, sculpting, and manuscript illumination.

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Calligraphic Painting of “Bismillah” Bird by Reza Mafi

 

Contemporary Iranian Calligraphy
Among the three main Iranian scripts—Taʿlīq, Nastaʿlīq, and Shekasteh-Nastaʿlīq—Taʿlīq gradually fell out of regular use, while the other two scripts continued to develop and reach maturity with the help of prominent Iranian artists up to the Qajar period. Contemporary Iranian calligraphy is a continuation of the Qajar-era tradition and inherits the legacy of notable figures such as Mirza Gholamreza Esfahani (in Nastaʿlīq and Shekasteh-Nastaʿlīq), Mohammad Reza Kalhor (in Nastaʿlīq), Ali Akbar Golestaneh (in Shekasteh-Nastaʿlīq), and Mohammad Hossein Emad al-Kotob (in Nastaʿlīq). Other important events in contemporary Iranian calligraphy include the establishment of free calligraphy classes by Mehdi Bayani and the Mir-Khani brothers (Seyyed Hassan and Seyyed Hossein) in 1950 (1329 SH), the founding of the Iranian Calligraphers Association by Khosro Za’imi in 1967 (1346 SH), and the emergence of Naqqashi-Khat (calligraphic painting) within the Saqqakhaneh painting movement.
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Mir Emad: The Master of Nasta‘liq Calligraphy in Iran

Mir Emad Hassani Seifi Qazvini was one of the most celebrated calligraphers in the history of Iranian art during the Safavid era, whose fame extended far beyond the borders of Iran. Through his exceptional mastery and artistic brilliance, he elevated the Nastaʿlīq script to such perfection that many scholars of Islamic calligraphy came to describe it as the bride of calligraphic scripts.

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Mir Emad Hassani Seifi Qazvini was one of the most celebrated Iranian calligraphers, born in 961 AH in Qazvin. His father and ancestors, who were descendants of the Hasani Seyyed’s of Qazvin, held positions in the administration of the Safavid rulers and were all people of taste, intellect, and culture, well-versed in art and literature. Notably, his grandfather Mir Hasan Ali was considered one of the foremost calligraphers, secretaries, and bibliophiles of his time. Thus, Mir Emad’s upbringing in a cultured family connected to the governing apparatus and influential circles played a significant role in his social and cultural development . He initially pursued studies in literature, and since calligraphy was considered one of the twelve essential literary sciences of that era, he entered this field and began his training. His innate talent, hereditary influences, and meticulous nature all combined to make his calligraphy recognized in Qazvin, gradually surpassing the works of other local masters. It wasn’t long before Mir Emad, seeking to benefit from the guidance of the renowned calligraphers of his time, traveled to Tabriz and became a student of Mohammad Hossein Tabrizi, a prominent master of the Nastaʿlīq script. After some time, Mir Emad decided to travel in order to familiarize himself with the works of calligraphers from other Muslim lands. One of his most significant journeys was to the holy sites of Mecca, where he studied the calligraphic works of great predecessors adorning the Kaaba and the mosques. Eventually, feeling the call of his own artistic mission, Mir Emad returned to Iran. His artistic activities continued in Qazvin until, owing to the city of Isfahan’s unique political and artistic importance, he decided to relocate there. Initially, Mir Emad followed the style of Mir Ali Heravi, but after arriving in Isfahan and gaining access to calligraphic pieces by Baba Shah, he grew to admire Baba Shah’s method. Likely through practice and copying of these pieces, he gradually adopted Baba Shah’s style for his own writing. Mir Emad’s presence in Isfahan coincided with the reign of Shah Abbas the Great (996–1038 AH), a historically significant period in terms of the sociology of art, fostering an environment that nurtured artistic growth and the development of talented artists. At this stage, the great Mir Emad also became affiliated with Shah Abbas’s cultural court. What mattered most to him at that time was the flourishing of calligraphy and the broader dissemination and promotion of this authentic art. Mir Emad also considered part of his artistic mission to be the establishment of a close connection between artists from Iran, India, and the Ottoman Empire—an endeavor that could only be realized in Isfahan.
During his sixteen-year residence in Isfahan, he trained hundreds of students, some of whom became leading masters in their own right, including Noor al-Din Mohammad Lahiji, Seyed Ali Khan Javaher-raqam, Abdul Rashid Deylami, and Mir Ebrahim Abutorab Esfahani. It is also important to note that Mir Emad’s expertise was not limited to calligraphy alone; he possessed deep knowledge of both Persian and Arabic literature and was accomplished in both prose and poetry.

  

Calligraphy of Surah Al-Fatiha by Mir Emad

Artistic Style and School of Mir Emad
Regarding the criteria of Mir Emad’s school and script, it is stated that the method of writing individual letters and words, their proportions, double-line writing (Do-danag), intentional irregularities, word composition, adherence to the Korsi line, various slanting styles, the strength and weakness of pen pressure, and the choice of ink color all fall within the characteristics of his particular penmanship. From an aesthetic and stylistic standpoint, Mir Emad’s script possesses such distinctive qualities that it is recognized as an independent school within the art of calligraphy. Among this artist’s works, the emergence of a distinct school and aesthetic in calligraphy is most evident in his Chhelipa (diagonal cross) compositions. This assertion can be supported by two main points: first, the centrality of Mir Emad’s pen and the characteristics of his writing school, and second, the importance, value, and artistic status of the Chhelipa format among other calligraphic forms. One reason for the formation of Mir Emad’s unique style is that his surviving works were far more widely viewed than those of previous calligraphers, and his prominence and unrivaled mastery during his time inspired subsequent calligraphers to emulate, study, and practice his style both theoretically and practically. Therefore, Mir Emad’s distinctive method was continued by his students and many other calligraphers, gradually becoming the dominant style of the era. His brilliant works also had an international impact, particularly in the Ottoman Empire and India, where his style became the prevailing method among calligraphers. Followers of Mir Emad proudly took on the names “Emad-i Rum” or “Emad-i Thani” and promoted his method in their own regions. Notable disciples in the Ottoman territories included Wali al-Din Efendi, Muhammad Rafi‘ Katibzade, and Muhammad As‘ad Isfahani. It is said that Mir Emad would exchange his calligraphy for gold during his lifetime, and by the time of his death, he was among the wealthiest men in Iran. Through refining and correcting the scripts of his predecessors, removing impurities, and harmonizing the proportions of letters and words, he achieved the highest degree of aesthetic perfection, akin to the golden ratio, thereby making a key contribution to the elevation of Nastaʿlīq script.

 

 

Chhelipa by Mir Emad

Classification of Mir Emad’s Works
Mir Emad’s calligraphic works can generally be categorized into four main groups:
a) Books:
These include copies of classical literary and religious texts, such as: Tuhfat al-Ahrar by Jami,Divan of Hafez, Golshan-e Raz by Sheikh Mahmoud Shabestari, Golestan by Saadi,Takmela-ye  Nafahat, Masnavi-ye Goy o Chogan by Arifi, Tuhfat al-Muluk, Al-Asma al-Husna, Subha al-Abrar by Jami and others.
b) Treatises and Pamphlets:
These include instructional and literary works, such as: Nasaih, Munajat by Khaja Abdullah Ansari, Zinat al-Muluk, Munajat of Imam Ali (AS), Pandnamehof Jami for his son, Haft Band by Hossein Kashani, Rubaiyat of Khayyam, and similar texts.
c) Marqa‘ (Collections of Practice Sheets):
Various practice sheets written with different pens and styles, often used for instruction or display of skill.
d) Pieces:
Individual or combined calligraphic panels, including collaborations with other calligraphers. The numbered pieces attributed to Mir Emad total approximately 160 items.
In conclusion, it can be said that Mir Emad’s outstanding works now adorn major museums in Iran and around the world. Some of his pieces have been transferred to the Calligraphy Museum of Qazvin in the Chehel Sotoun Palace. In addition, a valuable collection of Mir Emad’s works has been published and is accessible to enthusiasts of authentic Iranian Nastaʿlīq calligraphy at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. The enduring calligraphic school founded by Mir Emad continues to thrive even after approximately fourteen centuries, attracting devoted admirers. Mir Emad passed away in 1024 AH at the age of sixty-three. His tomb is situated on the eastern side of the small courtyard of Maqsud Beyk Mosque, in Isfahan, a city celebrated for its artistic heritage.

Chalipa in the Handwriting of Mir Emad

 

Some of the Most Important Works of Mir Emad
Some of the most significant calligraphic works by Mir Emad include:
Books: Tohfeh al-Ahrar by Jami, Divan of Hafez of Shirazi, Golshan-e Raz by Sheikh Mahmoud Shabestari, Golestan by Saadi, Takmela al-Nafahat, Masnavi-ye Goy o Chogan-e Arefi, Tohfeh al-Moluk, Al-Asma al-Hasna, Subhah al-Abrar by Jami
Treatises and Smaller Texts: Nasa’ih, Munajat by Khwaja Abdullah Ansari, Zinat al-Moluk, Munajat of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib (A), Pandnameh by Jami for his son, Haft Band by Hossein Kashani, Rubaiyat of Khayyam
These works collectively reflect the breadth of Mir Emad’s mastery in Persian calligraphy, spanning literary, religious, and poetic texts, and showcasing his signature elegance and precision in the Nastaʿlīq script.
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Emad al-Ketab: Reviver of Persian Calligraphy

Mirza Mohammad Hossein Sifi Qazvini, known as Emad al-Ketab, is considered one of the most prominent figures in the history of Iranian calligraphy in the Nastaʿlīq style and the final link in the golden chain of the old masters of this distinguished Iranian-Islamic art. Living during the Constitutional Revolution era, he used his exceptional talent, abundant creativity, and tireless effort to serve as the connecting point between contemporary calligraphers and the school of Mirza Mohammad Reza Kalleh.

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Mirza Mohammad Hossein Seyfi Qazvini, known by the title Emad al-Ketab, was born in 1240 SH (1861–1862 CE) in Qazvin, a major center of calligraphy in Iran. His father, Mirza Mohammad Qazvini, worked as a deed-writer, and with his encouragement, Mohammad Hossein became literate at the age of eight. He spent the early years of his youth studying traditional Islamic sciences, and later, driven by personal interest, he pursued modern subjects as well. In addition to the conventional knowledge of his time, he dedicated himself to learning French and completing his mastery of Arabic. Emad al-Ketab learned the fundamentals of calligraphy in Qazvin, studying under several masters, including Mirza Mohammad Ali Khoshnevis Qazvini. At the age of fourteen, he went to Rasht as an apprentice to a merchant from Shirvan. When he returned to his hometown after a year, he discovered that he had lost his father. The early remarriage of his mother added to his sorrow, and as he himself expressed, he endured much grief and loneliness during this period. At sixteen, Emad, accompanied by his younger brother, traveled to Iraq and resided in Kadhimiya for three years. These years were marked by hardship and struggle, during which he earned his living through manuscript writing. It is believed that during this period, he copied a Quran, a course in jurisprudence by Agha Seyyed Ali Bahr al-Uloom, and various other religious treatises, all written in Naskh script, which constitute the major works of this formative three-year stage. After some time, a man named Hojjat al-Islam Seyyed Mohammad Baqer found him and took him to the holy city of Karbala. Emad al-ketab spent nearly five years of his life there. At the end of the fifth year, which coincided with the late Naser al-Din Shah period and Emad’s 23rd year, he returned to his homeland. Upon his return, he founded his own calligraphy school called “Dar al-Ketabeh” on Naseriyeh (Naser Khosrow) Street in Tehran, making a living by teaching calligraphy and manuscript writing. During the reign of Mozaffar al-Din Shah, he joined the Ministry of Publications as a scribe, officially starting in year 1317 (of the Islamic calendar) as a government clerk. At the Shah’s request, Emad began copying Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, a monumental project that took three years to complete. His masterful calligraphy in this work impressed Mozaffar al-Din Shah, who honored him with the title “Emad al-Ketab”. This historical period coincided with the Constitutional Revolution in Iran. Emad al-Ketab, a man of independent spirit, supported the constitutionalists and actively participated in the movement. During the reign of Mohammad Ali Shah, due to his alignment with the constitutionalists, he was forced to flee into the mountains and deserts. Shortly afterward, in 1344 AH, he joined the Committee of Punishment and undertook the task of writing the committee’s proclamations. After the committee was exposed, Emad al-Ketab was sentenced to five years in prison. During these years, he produced many siyah-mashq (practice sheets), which often contained personal reflections and meditative writings. Emad al-Ketab was also the first Iranian calligrapher to travel to Russia, England, and Europe, and through these journeys, he was able to develop improved methods for compiling Persian calligraphy practice manuals (Rasm al-Mashq).

 Artistic Style of Emad al-Ketab


Emad al-Ketab was among the calligraphers proficient in the seven scripts and sought to master Naskh, Nastaliq, Shekasteh-Nastaliq, and Thulth, achieving notable success. Although he did not study directly under Mirza Mohammadreza Kalhor, he fully recognized the true value of Kalhor’s work and carefully analyzed the nuances and artistic subtleties of his calligraphy style. Two decades after Kalhor’s death, when his distinctive Nastaliq style was fading from memory, Emad al-Ketab began studying and practicing his works. Through this effort, he revived and elevated Kalhor’s style, ensuring its preservation and continued influence in Persian calligraphy.. A key characteristic of Emad al-Ketab’s style is the fluidity and single-stroke execution of letters and words, inspired by the technique of Mirza Kalhor. Remarkably, he achieved this without altering the fundamental skeleton and method of Kalhor’s script. Other notable traits of Emad’s calligraphy include speed of writing, precise sharpening of the pen, and smooth, even strokes of letters and words—qualities that contemporary calligraphers describe as the “rhythm of heart and hand”. Consequently, Emad’s style aligns closely with Kalhor’s, effectively complementing and completing Kalhor’s school of calligraphy.

Through meticulous study of printed works, calligraphic pieces, and black practice sheets left by Mirza Reza Kalhor, Emad discovered the secrets, rules, and artistic techniques of his predecessor, fulfilling his historical and artistic mission of propagating Kalhor’s style. By incorporating his own creative innovations, Emad merged his unique approach with Kalhor’s refined style, introducing the feature of segmentation (taqti ‘) into Nastaliq script. In addition, Emad al-Ketab was able to perfect certain strokes within the framework of Kalhor’s school. He was recognized as the first calligrapher to introduce a system of dotting (punctuation) in calligraphy instruction. Not only did he apply this technique to Nastaliq script, but he also extended it to Shikasteh (broken) and Naskh scripts, enhancing precision and clarity in the teaching and practice of Persian calligraphy.

Lasting Contributions of Emad al-Ketab to Iranian Calligraphy

One of Emad al-Ketab’s greatest and most enduring contributions to Iranian calligraphy was the creation and publication of a 36-volume self-instruction course titled “Rasm al-Mashq.” He compiled this work at his own expense with the aim of making calligraphy accessible to novice students, marking a highly influential step in reviving the art of calligraphy and strengthening its educational foundations. This innovative initiative brought the art of calligraphy into schools for the first time, transforming calligraphy instruction from an elite privilege—previously reserved for princes and wealthy court officials—into a more widely accessible art form. Through this effort, Emad al-Ketab played a pivotal role in reviving the continuity of traditional calligraphic schools after a period of disruption. Additionally, his smart approach facilitated the dissemination and popularization of Mirza Reza Kalhor’s style, in which he himself was a key follower, ensuring that this prominent calligraphic method reached a broader audience and was preserved for future generations. In addition to calligraphy, Emad al-Ketab had a keen interest in painting, illumination (tazhib), poetry and literature, music, and photography, and he even experimented creatively in some of these arts, such as painting. In 1933 CE (1312 AH Solar), the National Works Association commissioned him to inscribe the epigraphs at the tomb of Ferdowsi, the renowned Iranian poet, in Tus. Following this, he adorned the Dar al-Fonun, Daneshsara-ye ‘Ali (Higher Teacher Training School), University of Tehran, and the Faculty of Theology and Islamic Studies (Daneshkade-ye Ma‘qul va Manqul, University of Tehran) with elegant inscriptions. In the same year, he was awarded the First-Class Culture Medal by the Ministry of Education. A large number of works by Emad al-Ketab have survived, primarily in the forms of siyah-mashq (densely written practice sheets), chhelipa (diagonal calligraphic panels), and line compositions, with siyah-mashq being the most predominant among them.

In the final analysis, Emad al-Ketab played two key roles in the history of Iranian calligraphy. The first role was his effort to preserve and transmit the tradition of Nastaliq script within the education system, ensuring that Persian calligraphy did not fade during the period of Western cultural influence, the Constitutional Revolution, and the early Pahlavi era. The second role, which is perhaps even more defining, stems not from his numerous and magnificent manuscripts, but from his diverse and expressive siyah-mashq works, which established him as a calligrapher with a distinctive personal style. These siyah-mashq pieces, which reached a peak of creativity during his imprisonment by the Punishment Committee, continued deliberately and consciously after his release. Building on the foundation laid by Mirza Mohammad Reza Kalhor in the siyah-mashq form, Emad al-Ketab introduced rhythmic and musical qualities to this calligraphic template, enhancing both its aesthetic and expressive dimensions

In his siyah-mashq works, Emad al-Ketab adopted a distinctive narrative approach, both visually and in terms of the textual meaning. This characteristic clearly distinguishes his style from the siyah-mashq works of the Qajar period. Moreover, Emad al-Ketab’s effective and remarkable efforts in reviving and advancing the art of calligraphy ensured the preservation and continuity of this authentic Iranian-Islamic art. Through his passion, dedication, steadfastness, and tireless endeavors, he safeguarded the Persian script from the storms of historical upheavals and forgetfulness, presenting it as a valuable heritage to future generations.

Emad al-Ketab passed away on 26 Tir 1315 SH (July 17, 1936) in Tehran at the age of 75. His body was laid to rest at Imamzadeh Abdullah in Shahr-e Rey.

Surviving Artistic Works of Emad al-Ketab

The surviving works of Emad al-Ketab can generally be categorized into three main groups:

a) Manuscripts: The Shahnameh of Ferdowsi, which marked the beginning of Emad’s fame and earned him the title Emad al-Ketab from Mozaffar al-Din Shah.

b) Inscriptions (Khat) on buildings: Various kufic and naskh inscriptions adorning mosques, schools, and public buildings.

c) Individual pieces and documents: Calligraphic panels,siah-mashq(practice sheets), letters, official decrees, and paintings, many created during his imprisonment for collaborating with the Committee of Punishment.

Notable surviving works include:

  • Rasm al-Mashq (Calligraphy manual)
  • Shahnameh of Ferdowsi (Amir Bahadri version)
  • Tarji‘band by Hatef Isfahani
  • Awsaf al-Ashraf
  • Alf al-Nahar
  • Stanley’s Africa travelogue
  • Letters of Naseri scholars
  • Accounting records of Musi Khan
  • A copy of the Quran (Nafis Quran)
  • Kitab-e Mohseniyeh
  • The Constitution (Qanun Asasi)
  • Bisotun inscription
  • School of Rezaieh inscription
  • Hadith-e Velayat inscription

These works collectively highlight Emad al-Ketab’s mastery across calligraphy, epigraphy, and documentation, reflecting his pivotal role in preserving and elevating Persian calligraphy.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Gholamhossein Amirkhani: The Father of Contemporary Iranian Calligraphy

Master Gholamhossein Amirkhani is considered one of the enduring figures of Iranian calligraphy in the Nasta‘liq style and the most renowned contemporary calligrapher, having played a significant role over the past forty years in the development and promotion of this authentic Iranian-Islamic art.

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Gholamhossein Amirkhani was born on January 23, 1940, in the village of Shahrasar in Taleqan. When he was three or four, he became familiar with letters and numbers and acquired the skill of writing. At the age of five, he moved to Tehran with his family. During their short stay in Tehran, Gholamhossein’s father worked in a sock-hosiery factory, but shortly after, the family returned to Taleqan, where he took up a teaching position in the village of Shahrasar. Due to the nature of his father’s profession, Gholamhossein and his family returned to Tehran a year later. Having completed first grade in Shahrasar, Gholamhossein attended Masoud Saad Elementary School in Tehran for his second year. When he reached adulthood , he began working as an accountant in a trading company, and it was there that he started practicing calligraphy on packages. The master himself recalls: “While working, I discovered that I felt an uncontrollable passion and enthusiasm for writing on the packages. I wasn’t even thinking about what I was writing — it was the act of writing itself that filled me with ecstasy and swept me away.” He has also stated in an interview that during those days, due to the lack of proper tools and materials for calligraphy practice, he used to rehearse his writing on mud-plastered walls or on polished tin and metal sheets. At the age of nineteen, his deep passion for calligraphy led him to the Iranian Calligraphers Association, where he gradually became acquainted with the fundamentals of this art.In 1961 (1340 SH), he began working in the Graphic Arts Department of the then Ministry of Culture and Arts, where he gained valuable experience under the guidance of the distinguished master Sadegh Barirani. During this period, the young Amirkhani also benefited from the mentorship of other renowned figures, such as Dr. Manouchehr Adameet, through which he built a reputation  for himself in the world of culture and art.
 
Artistic Style
In 1961, he received the Certificate of Excellence from the Iranian Calligraphers Association, gaining the attention of figures in the cultural and artistic community. Amirkhani’s acquaintance with Dr. Estakhri, one of the prominent intellectuals of his time, brought a significant transformation to the spirit and character of this calligrapher. Their friendship and close association continued until 1981, the year of Dr. Estakhri’s passing, resulting in the transcription of approximately 5,000 pages under the title“Talʿat-e Haqq” (The Countenance of Truth), of which 2,500 pages were published in six volumes. In 1966, Master Amirkhani became a member of the Board of Trustees of the Iranian Calligraphers Association, and in 1974, he attained the rank equivalent to Master. During this period, he collaborated with prominent calligraphers such as Fathali Vashaqani, Reza Mafi, Kheykhosro Khoroush, Oveis Vafsi, Ali Akbar Khan Kaveh, Seyyed Hossein and Seyyed Hassan Mirkhani, and Ebrahim Bouzari. In 1978, Master Amirkhani was appointed President of the Iranian Calligraphers Association, a role he held until 2023. The following year, in 1998, he received the First-Class Medal of Culture and Art from the President of the Islamic Republic of Iran. In 2002, he was honored as one of the distinguished figures in the “Everlasting Faces” ceremony. He currently serves as the head of the Supreme Council of the Iranian Calligraphers Association.
Master Amirkhani’s Artistic Style
Master Amirkhani’s style is a highly resonant approach that has consistently been popular among calligraphers over recent decades. The primary expertise of this calligrapher lies in the Nastaʿlīq script, although he is also proficient in other styles, such as Shekasteh-Nastaʿlīq. In his early youth, Master Amirkhani did not follow a specific calligraphy model; therefore, he acted according to his own disposition, and his style emerged as a combination and fusion of various calligraphic approaches. Even when he studied under Master Seyyed Hossein Mirkhani, he received this advice from his teacher: “Young man! Don’t write like me; the way you write now is good.” Master Amirkhani, with full mastery of various pen proportions, writes pages and inscriptions with exceptional skill. This prominent contemporary artist should be regarded as a reviver of calligraphy in the modern era. He is a calligrapher who managed, after many years, to restore artistic calligraphy alongside functional writing. His script has always conveyed meaning and has continually evolved along the path of change and refinement. In his calligraphy, Amirkhani presents a delicate and artistic fusion of the styles of both classical and modern calligraphers, which is not only beautiful but also pleasing to the eye. The rises and falls of his script are based on the well-known golden proportions, as if he had tailored a new form for the Nastaʿlīq script. In Amirkhani’s works, one can observe traces of the firmness of Mir Ali Heravi and Soltan Ali Mashhadi’s script, the delicacy of Mirza Gholamreza Esfahani, and the boldness of Mir Emad Qazvini. Master Amirkhani has experimented with various forms of calligraphy and has achieved remarkable success in most of them. In Chalipā writing, a classic and visually striking form of calligraphy, he has produced successful and sometimes innovative works, some of which rival the best historical examples. The numerous Chalipās he has created on starch-sized Safavid and Qajar papers are considered among his most brilliant works. In the field of Gheteh (piece-writing), Master Amirkhani, relying on the rich legacy of great historical calligraphers and using innovative personal combinations known as “Qesar-navisi,” arranges phrases beautifully and harmoniously within a confined space. His piece-writing, employing various pens and the skillful placement of fine and bold elements while maintaining unity, is an unprecedented and innovative achievement. On the other hand, poster calligraphy, which is an important need in contemporary calligraphy, should also be considered among Master Amirkhani’s innovations. Additionally, cover calligraphy with novel combinations, previously without precedent, has been transformed into a unique style by this artist. Although there are good examples of his Siah-Mashqworks over the years—such as those printed in the book Sahifeh-ye Hasti—he has never seriously pursued this form. Perhaps the reason for this is the school in which the master was trained, namely, the Mirza Reza Kalhor school. In this school,Siah-Mashq is not considered a prestigious or primary form; it is mainly regarded as a practice or recreational exercise. In the field of manuscript writing, although its original functional role in the emergence of calligraphy no longer exists and it mainly addresses artistic and aesthetic aspects, Master Amirkhani is considered one of the most prominent contemporary scribes, with a fresh perspective on line and page composition. One of Master Amirkhani’s striking examples of manuscript writing is the introduction to the book Monaajat-e Manzoom of Imam Ali (peace be upon him), written in the script of the late Mir Ali Heravi. Amirkhani also has great skill in selecting themes, or in other words, in composing appropriate texts, and his exemplars and pieces are full of moral and instructive points. If the scope of a contemporary calligrapher’s activities is divided into four areas—“piece-writing,” “manuscript writing,” “research and study,” and “teaching”—it can be said that Master Amirkhani has achieved remarkable success in most of these four areas.
Master Amirkhani and Calligraphy Education
Throughout his long and influential artistic career, Amirkhani has been able to pass on his valuable experiences to multiple generations of calligraphy students. In this regard, the culture of selfless dedication in calligraphy education, initiated by Master Seyyed Hossein Mirkhani, has been institutionalized by Master Amirkhani. Master Amirkhani’s elite classes at the Iranian Calligraphers Association have always accommodated between one hundred and one hundred fifty eager students. These classes, before being mere places to teach calligraphy, have been centers for imparting knowledge and ethics; the master has always patiently and generously corrected his students’ exercises and discussed them with great detail. This is in contrast to earlier generations of Iranian calligraphers, who did not devote sufficient attention to teaching. It can be said that Master Amirkhani’s efforts in training outstanding students—both in terms of quantity and quality—are comparable only to those of Master Seyyed Hossein Mirkhani. He has had the fortune of training well-known calligraphers such as Ali Ashraf Sandoughabadi, Javad Bakhtiari, Ali Shirazi, Amir Ahmad Falsafi, Mohammad Ali Sabzehkar, Mohammad Ali Ghorbani, and others; it can even be said that the dedication and hard work of this group of students have successfully continued Master Amirkhani’s calligraphic style. In addition to holding in-person classes, which over the past decades have had a significant impact on the teaching and popularization of calligraphy, he has authored several script manuals in various languages, many of which have been reprinted multiple times. Master Amirkhani has held dozens of solo and group exhibitions both inside and outside Iran, in countries such as England, France, Pakistan, Syria, and others. In conclusion, many art scholars consider Master Amirkhani to be the most outstanding living Iranian Nastaʿlīq calligrapher of the contemporary period, and his name has been registered as a living human treasure of Nastaʿlīq in the National List of Rare Intangible Cultural Heritage.
 
The Artistic Works of Gholamhossein Amirkhani
Among the artistic works of this prominent contemporary calligrapher are: Monaajatnameh of Imam Ali (peace be upon him),Du‘a Kumayl,Divan of Hafez ,Qasideh-ye Qur’aniyeh,Aftabi dar Sayeh (Sunlight in the Shade),Tala‘at-e Haq (The Face of Truth),Tarji‘band-e Hatef ,Sarv-e Sayehfekan (The Shadow-Casting Cypress),Jelveh-haye Niyaz Monaajat (Manifestations of Prayerful Need), several pages from the Holy Qur’an,Spring in Autumn,Tarkibband-e Mohtasham,Rubaiyat of Khayyam,Amirkhani’s Calligraphy Scripts,Sahifeh-ye Hasti (The Book of Existence),Qalam-andazhaye Asheghaneh (Romantic Pen Strokes),The Story of Iyaz’s Love,Message of Kindness,Mashq-e Nam-e Leyli, and more.